Vatican Councils

Vatican Councils, the two most recent Roman Catholic ecumenical councils, held at the Vatican. Vatican Council I (1869–70), summoned by Pius IX, restated traditional dogma against materialism, rationalism, and liberalism. It also declared the pope to be infallible when, speaking ex cathedra, he defines a doctrine of faith or morals. Some dissenters seceded as Old Catholics. Vatican Council II (1962–65), summoned by John XXIII, aimed at renewal of the church, the updating of its organization and attitude to the modern world, and the ultimate reunion of all Christian churches. Protestant and Orthodox observers attended. Along with calling for a reform of the ministry and liturgy, including increased lay participation and use of vernacular languages, the council decreed that the bishops with the pope form a body (“collegiality”) and that the Virgin Mary is “Mother of the Church.”